Transactional Analysis Essays

Transactional Analysis Essays Transactional Analysis Essay Transactional Analysis Essay The reaction of people to a management problem cannot always be anticipated. But, we can predict the kind of responses our interventions may evoke from people. How? The answer is –with the help of transactional analysis. When people interact in assertive or non-assertive ways, there is a social transaction in which one person responds to another. The study of these social transactions between people is called transactional analysis. It is a method of analyzing and understanding behaviour. Transactional analysis was developed by ERIC BERNE for psychotherapy in the 1950s. It was popularized by Berne’s book ‘Games People Play (1964)’, the writings of Thomas Harris, Muriet James and Dorothy Jougeward and Abe Wagner. Jougeward and Wagner have shown how the concepts of transactional analysis can be applied to organizations. Objective- The objective of transactional analysis (TA) is to provide better understanding of how people relate to one another so that they may develop improved communication and human relationships. TA is are outgrowth of earlier Freudian psychology Sigmund. Freud was the first to suggest that there are 3 sources within the human personality that stimulate, monitor and control behaviour. The Freudian ego and superego are important concepts, but their definitions are difficult to understand or apply without extensive training in psychotherapy. Thus, one of the major contributions of TA theorists is that they have, in a sense, borrowed from Freud but have put some of his concepts into a language that everyone can understand and without being trained psychiatrists, can use for diagnostic purpose in understanding why people behave as they do. Ego States According to TA, a transaction is a stimulus plus a response. For eg. if we praise somebody, that’s a stimulus. The thanks which that person gives in return is the response. Thus, transactions take place between people. They can also take place between the people in our heads. If we have a sudden impulse to say something to someone, we may mentally hear a voice telling us not to say it and then a second voice agreeing. These people in our heads are called ego states. According to BERNE, two people interact with eac h other from one of the three psychological positions, known as ego states. PERSONALITY- COLLECTION OF BEHAVIOUR His idea about human personality being multi-faceted was particularly influential on Berne. This idea that regardless of what the particular areas of personality are labeled, each person â€Å"possesses factions that frequently collide with each other. It is these collisions and interactions between these personality factions that manifest themselves as an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. † (The International Transactional Analysis Association, 1999). Through Freudian theory, these would be understood as the id, ego, and superego. Dr. Berne felt that Freud’s proposed structures were more â€Å"concepts and not phenomenological realities:†(Berne D. E. , 2001). Although influenced by Freud, his approach took on a different method altogether. Freud believed that the three aspects of personality (Id, Ego, and Superego) needed to be well balanced in order to achieve a good state of mental health. Berne created a theory that considered a different approach, one that was based on the original idea of Freud that personalities are multi-faceted(Berne D. E. , 2001). Berne took the alternative approach to therapy and instead of asking the client about it directly, it seemed that a problem was easier understood by observing the communication (verbal and nonverbal) in a transaction. Therefore, instead of interviewing the client directly, he took a different route and would observe the client in the group setting, noting all of the transactions that occurred between both the patient and the individuals involved in therapy. Also attractive to Berne was Federn’s work on analysis, structure, and the multiple aspects of the ego that resulted in human transactions (Turner, 1986). This also represents the split from the Freudian mainstream between the psychodynamic theorists and the ego psychologists. Probably most notable is Erik Erikson, whose life-span theory focused more on the ego as a separate structure, rather than a derivative of the id. Dr. Berne studied under Erik Erickson for two years prior to striking out on his own. Erickson’s view on the importance of developmental life stages was the springboard for Transactional Analysis, as demonstrated by the key concepts of this theory. Berne believed that the personality was structured into three different ego states: Parent, Adult, and Child. He moved from believing these were mere â€Å"theoretical concepts† to the idea that these were directly observable in his patients. Instead of making assumptions based on prior Freudian teaching, Berne would ask the question directly to the patient, asking which state was currently speaking(Prochaska, 2010). Biologically speaking, there is evidence that helped to also support the development of Transactional Analysis. Dr. Wilder Penfield, a neurosurgeon from McGill University in Montreal, Canada was experimenting with the effects of applying electrical currents to specific regions of the brain(Berne D. E. , 2001). From this he found that by stimulating certain areas, it brought forth meaningful memories, which helped to reveal a person’s past, accompanied with feelings and emotions that went with these forgotten memories. The direct influence on Berne as a result of these experiments was as follows: -the human brain acts in many ways like a camcorder, vividly recording events. While that event may not necessarily be able to be consciously retrieved by the owner, the event always exists in the brain. -both the event and the feelings experienced during that event are stored in the brain. The event and the feelings are locked together, and neither one can be recalled without the other. -when an individual replays his or her experiences, he or she can replay them in such a vivid form that the individual experiences again the same emotions he or she felt during the actual experience (Berne D. E. , 2001). Individuals are able to exist in two states simultaneously. Individuals replaying certain events are able to experience the emotions associated with those events, but they are able to objectively talk about the events (Berne D. E. , 2001). This would explain how a client could identify which â€Å"state† from where the discussion or feelings are coming from. Berne worked to assist the patient in identifying the emotions, feelings, and this became the point from which the progress in therapy could begin. It was in 1958 that Berne started the San Francisco Psychiatry Seminars, a small group of professionals that met to discuss their interest in social treatment. Turner, 1986). It was during these sessions that many different approaches to psychotherapy were discussed. The idea of these seminars took off and soon professionals interested in this type of discussion were traveling from everywhere to attend. His theory became a method of therapy, through which standards, training, and certification were developed. Key Concepts/Central Propos itions The framework of this approach is based on a transaction, which Berne considered the fundamental unit of social intercourse. He also used the terminology of â€Å"strokes†, which he defined as â€Å"units of social recognition† (Turner, 1986) He drew on the work of Rene Spitz, who looked at why infants suffered from failure to thrive. Spitz did studies on children in orphanages and the devastating effects of lack of touching and nurturing of the child. It was through these studies that Berne developed the concept of the importance of stroking, and how he felt it crucial for human survival. He expanded on this idea of the physical touch and attention to include that of verbal transactions as well. He defined a stroke as â€Å"the fundamental unit of social action† (Berne D. E. , 2001). Berne’s theory of Transactional Analysis explored this idea of stroking, based on the assumption that people spend their lives seeking strokes (Turner, 1986). These strokes can be negative, positive, conditional, and unconditional and can be given verbally, nonverbally, and physically. It is by knowing your own and your client’s â€Å"stroke economy†, it helps develop information on how you can problem-solve (Witkin, 1988) together (Turner, 1986). Berne also developed the idea of three ego states; this is in addition to the analysis of the interactions between individuals. He defined the ego state as â€Å"a consistent pattern of feeling and experience directly related to a corresponding consistent pattern of behavior (Berne D. E. , 2001). Berne noticed as he worked with his clients that they had different displays of behavior that constantly changed during his counseling sessions. He would notice that the individual had different â€Å"states of being†, which he began to refer to as the â€Å"adult, child, and parent†. Not at all imitating the id, ego, and superego; these concepts stood on their own as phenomenological realities. He was able to confirm these ego states with observable behaviors that could be measured, thus creating a justifiable place in the scientific community. Berne created unique definitions for the three ego states, Parent, Child, and Adult, all of which were the underlying fabric for his theory. He felt that child were widely influenced by their parents, thus the first few years of life were spent collecting and recording what as experienced and modeled to them. This includes the values, morals, and beliefs taught by the parents. When a patient was in this stage, they would react in a way that they feel their parents would react. Berne referred to this as a time â€Å"when children have no way of filtering the data, therefore these events are â€Å"imposed† on the child†(Berne D. E. , 2001). There are two aspects of this Parent ego state which need to be address ed, those being the Nurturing Parent (NP) and the Controlling Parent (CP), both of which have positive and negative aspects (Corey, 2008). The positive consists of nurturing the Child stage and moving from the parental influence to more of how the child actually perceives events. Exploration was done in the area of feelings and emotions that were experienced during this stage. The final ego state in this theory is Adult, this is the time when a child starts to experience some independence (thus, the start of the Adult in the small child). This is exhibited by gross motor activity within the child. Different than what the child observed (Parent) and felt (Child), the Adult provides the platform for evaluating and validating the Child and Parental data. A simplification of Transactional Analysis would be to describe the Parent as the taught concept, the Child as the felt concept, and the Adult as the learned concept(Berne D. E. , 2001). Yet another important concept in Transactional Analysis is what Berne considered Time Structuring(The International Transactional Analysis Association, 1999). Looking at how humans use their time can indicate whether or not they are socially healthy. With each distinction of time usage (withdrawal, ritual, pastimes, activities, games, and intimacy) there are both social advantages and disadvantages. It is through this analysis that one can be determined to be in â€Å"control† of their time spent. This theory encourages time spent for creative, spontaneous work and play, which is indicative of a healthy person. In his book, The Games People Play, Berne states that the â€Å"eternal problem of the human being is how to structure his waking hours† (pg. 5). Time-structuring is also known as â€Å"programming† and consists of three aspects: material, social, and individual. The material programming provides opportunities for â€Å"stroking† that arise through activities where social exchange must occur in order to progress to the intended goal. These activities offer a matrix for â€Å"stroking†, recognition, and other more complex forms of social intercourse(Berne E. , 1964). The social aspect of â€Å"programming† is the criteria provided by both the parents and the culture in which a child is raised. These are the cues to what types of behavior are acceptable, which are reinforced through structure and reinforcements. This guidance is provided for the individual through unspoken rules and regulations, however, eventually the individual programming will take over. Individual programming takes over and the person may choose to act against the norm- this is known as â€Å"the game†(Berne E. , 1964). This individual programming attempts to explain abnormal, dysfunctional behavior, which Berne describes as â€Å"games†(The International Transactional Analysis Association, 1999). As related to the concept of needing strokes, whether positive or negative, dysfunctional behavior is a result of attempting to get these strokes. Often times, this need for strokes tends to reinforce negative feelings and self-concepts, which in turn, tends to help hide the real thoughts and emotions of people. Thus, the negative behavior of the individual continues. Berne described this cycle as a result of â€Å"self-limiting behaviors†- these are actions that were learned during childhood that were used as a means of survival. This is what is known in Transactional Analysis as the â€Å"life script†, or the pre-conscious life plan that governs the way life is lived out (The International Transactional Analysis Association, 1999). The purpose behind Transactional Analysis is changing this â€Å"life script† through a mutual contracting for change. It acknowledges that clients have the ability to decide what they need for their lives and work in a positive manner to make the changes needed to move towards reaching these goals. Assumptions Transactional analysis is based on the assumption that individuals have the ability to become aware of decisions that govern behavior. These individuals are assumed to have the capacity to make new decisions that will alter the life course in a beneficial manner(Corey, 2008). Another core assumption of this theory is that a life position is chosen early in life, based on early experiences. Children make a precocious decision about how they are in life compared to others around them. This â€Å"life position† has four possibilities: â€Å"I’m OK- you’re OK, I’m OK- you’re not OK, I’m not OK- you’re OK, or I’m not OK- you’re not OK† (Prochaska, 2010). Berne believed that generally, all children are born with the notion that they are â€Å"OK†, it is the programming that occurs that may change how the child views themselves and the world around them. This theory also assumed that people experiencing social or emotional difficulty are intelligent and capable of understanding their stress. People are responsible for their own healing process. He also felt that all social and emotional difficulties are curable, given adequate knowledge and a proper approach. Berne demonstrated through Transactional Analysis theory the belief that anything that has learned can be relearned(Corey, 2008). There are some instances where we have not discovered how to approach specific populations of people that are diagnosed with things such as schizophrenics, alcoholism, etc. Berne felt that these populations of people were â€Å"good† and capable of leading satisfying lives that do not interfere with others. Using the foundation of theory evaluation criteria provided by Witkin and Gottschalk(1988), the first condition is that the theory should be explicitly critical; including an examination of its historical, political, and cultural implications. This theory is substantive in that it collects content based on the three ego states(Berne D. E. , 2001). Through this procedure, it provides a methodology of steps needed in therapy, information that is important to obtain, and ways to evaluate and analyze information collected. It takes into account the aspects of social constructivism, which is an attempt to develop a meaningful science of human behavior(Witkin, 1988). Social contructionism, as defined by Witkin and Gottschalk(1988), consists of assumptions based on common understandings of the world as a function of cultural and historical contexts. This understanding occurs through a process of social interaction and the understanding is based on social processes- these descriptions and explanations of social phenomena constrain certain patterns and reinforce others(Witkin, 1988). Transactional Analysis theory parallels social contructionism through the life scripting that occurs early in childhood, based on the transactions and reinforcements that occur through programming, particularly the social aspect. By utilizing the client as the resource for gaining the information, whether it is through observing interactions both verbal and nonverbal, it will provide a better comprehension of the meaning behind the client’s communication. Witkin and Gottshcalk(1988) also consider the idea the theory should recognize that humans are active agents, meaning people act according to their intentions nd can surmount obstacles and transform them. Based on this concept, Transactional Analysis fits this criteria perfectly. It is a theory based on the idea that it is essential for people to be involved in their own treatment process. Berne had an implicit viewpoint that humans understand their stress more than any other and they also realize that the change process is v ital to their happiness. Witkin and Gottschalk(1988) also evaluate theory on the aspect that it should account for the life experiences of the client. By looking at the three ego states of Transactional Analysis; the Child, the Parent, and the Adult, it takes into consideration the specific influences, both internal and external that each person has experienced in their life. This is the basis for the predicated movement towards change for the client. The social justice aspect would be present in allowing the opportunity for each individual to feel their experiences were valid, and beneficial to the therapeutic process (Witkin, 1988). Viewing this theory through another analytic framework provided by Fischer(1973), there are five areas of theories that may be considered for analysis to determine effectiveness. The structural characteristics of Transactional Analysis are proscriptive in nature, meaning there is an explanation and tools to use in therapy. Unlike Freudian concepts that are descriptive, Berne was able to create measurable terminology that was used to determine findings in a consistent manner. The measure of an effective theory, according to Fischer(1973), is that the theory is testable. Through Transactional Analysis theory, there are clearly defined terms, such as strokes (both positive and negative), ego states, and transactions. Berne gave solid, measurable definitions of these terms and provided the ability to test this theory in a scientific, measurable manner(Berne D. E. , 2001). By following the process of script analysis, Transactional Analysis provides the individual with the awareness of how they acquired their life script and allows them to see more clearly their life role. This realization assists the individual in opening up possibilities for making changes and contracting provides the roadmap. Fisher (1973) also provides criteria that the theory should be comprehensive in nature, which Transactional Analysis seems to comply. It allows the client to explore both learning externally (the Parent) and internally (the Child), with the client analyzing these interactions through an exploration of how one affects the other (the Adult). This would appear to be a useful theory, as it is provides techniques for therapeutic intervention. Transactional Analysis is able to explain normal behavior, although it is not clear on abnormal behavior such as schizophrenia or criminal behavior. It does not account for those clients that do not have a positive viewpoint or willingness to change their â€Å"life script†. When utilizing Fischer’s method of analyzing theory, one must consider the assumptions made about human nature. This theory views people in a very optimistic, positive manner. It promotes creativity, relaxation, and the ability to recognize what changes need to be made(Berne D. E. , 2001). It emphasizes a positive worker/client relationship that promotes good rapport, trust, and the willingness to create a plan for change(Clary, 1980). It appears to be in line with the core values of social work, including self-determination and respect for client rights, individualism, and dignity(NASW, 2008). This is demonstrated by allowing the client to recognize instances of how the â€Å"life script† developed and thus clients are increasing empowered to choose their ego state at any particular time(Prochaska, 2010). Transactional analysis provides the opportunity for the therapist to relate as an equal to the client. The clients are able to progress in therapy at their own pace, further demonstrating the value of self-determination. This theory encourages the volitional powers of patient right from the onset of treatment by making it a contractual arrangement(Prochaska, 2010). According to the analytical framework provided by Fischer, this would appear to be a very useful, valid theory for use in practice (Fischer, 1973). Using the theory in the social work profession Transactional Analysis still is utilized today in the field of social work. In fact, there still exists training and certification in this very area of specialization. Berne was interested in more than just the client progressing slowly, he wanted to provide a method of coping that would assist individuals on an immediate, daily basis. In general, social workers also strive for immediate relief for clients, groups, and communities. It is important to establish an immediate rapport with clients in order to make progress towards meeting goals. Transactional analysis describes this very concept through â€Å"stroking â€Å", which requires a social worker to understand both their need and ability to provide this type of reinforcement (Berne D. E. , 2001). In practice social workers must be able to model positive stroke giving as an important part of effective practice. In theory, the process of learning to give and receive strokes will help alleviate feelings of depression and loneliness and increase personal intimate relationships. Using the three identified ego states allows for the therapist to make assessments regarding the client in the areas of thinking, feeling, and learning. Berne provides four ways to identify or diagnose ego states; behavioral, social phenomenological, and historical(Berne D. E. , 2001). Behavioral diagnosis would consist of gesture, voice, and vocabulary that are typical in each ego state. A social diagnosis would consist of how people react to the client; a phenomenological diagnosis is experiencing in the present old feelings from the past, and a and historical diagnosis would be looking at the past reflected in the present. All of these consist of the process of deciding how one wants to be socially with others, social work theory and practice support methods to gain autonomy (Turner, 1986). Providing an atmosphere for change is another way in which this theory is used in social work practice. The Child ego state wants comfort and warmth, time for exploration and activity. This is provided for the client using this theory by giving them a comfortable atmosphere in which to do therapy. This helps to develop a caring position for developing the rapport needed for the client to be able to problem solve and work towards changing their behavior. To be effective, transactional analysts must be genuine in therapy, they must believe in relating as equals with clients(Prochaska, 2010). Another form of social treatment using the Transactional Analysis method for social workers is the initial use of positive stroking. In this field the recognition of asking for help is a sign that the client is trying to cope and it is an indicator of client autonomy. Therefore, it is essential in the initial stages that the practice of positive stroking occurs, this builds rapport and provides and effective, therapeutic environment(Napper, 2009). The social worker also is able to provide a provision of protection for the client, in both an individual and group therapy situation(Corey, 2008). A client is encouraged to participate in self-analysis, this type of therapy provides them with a safe, nurturing environment in which to do so. Group therapy is preferred in Transactional Analysis, in part because it allows a greater number of transactions, including more troubled transactions, than might ordinarily occur with an individual therapist relating primarily as an Adult(Prochaska, 2010). Regardless of the venue, providing clear rules about the session and what to expect will allow the client to feel safe to reveal themselves, thus allowing the opportunity for a trusting relationship with those involved in the therapeutic process. Patients are not the only potential game players in transactional analysis. Therapists using this method must be ever vigilant in enacting their own scripts at their clients’ expense(Prochaska, 2010). Self-awareness of the social work practitioner assists in eliminating this phenomena It would also be essential that the therapist seek strokes away outside of the workplace so as not to utilize the client in this manner. This is beneficial not only to the client/therapist relationship but to the basic premise behind the theory of Transactional Analysis. Major Contributions One of the major criticisms of the science or lack thereof behind psychotherapy is based on the fact that there is often no unit of measurement for study. Berne was able to create a measurable concept by defining the transaction of stroking, thus providing a measure that was able to give some credibility to this theory in the world of science. In the book Games People Play (1964 ), Berne defined transactions as a unit of social intercourse: â€Å"If two or more people encounter each other†¦sooner or later one of them will speak, or give some other indication of acknowledging the presence of the others. This is called transactional stimulus. Another person will then say or do something, which is in some way related to the stimulus, and that is called transactional response. â€Å"(Berne, 1964) Transactional Analysis is a versatile theory that can be used in group, couples, family, and individual therapy (Corey, 2008). This theory focuses on establishing intimacy and joy in interaction and communication, which is effective in creating positive outcomes for group and family members. By acknowledging ego states and the programming that has occurred, this can assist clients in becoming more self-aware and confident in their communication and interactions. It is through this realization that self-actualization can occur, thus providing a platform for success in changing behavior (Sills, 2007). Transactional analysis makes extensive use of the interpersonal interactions between therapist and client within sessions (Prochaska, 2010). This theory is still utilized currently still in therapy, there is a certification one can obtain in this theory that consists of training in the areas of psychotherapy, educational, organizational, and counseling arenas (The International Transactional Analysis Association, 1999). This movement continues today and has a worldwide list of members that both practice and belong to the International Transactional Analysis Association, thus supporting the idea that this is an effective theory that can be used in current practice. Ethical Issues/Consistency with social work values and ethics/Diverse Populations Transactional Analysis provides the foundation for self-determination (NASW, 2008). It recognizes client autonomy and the importance of allowing the client to guide their own decision making process (Corey, 2008). It embraces the ethics of preserving the value of human beings, equality (social justice), and self-responsibility(NASW, 2008). By observing the client’s interactions and behaviors (verbal and nonverbal), this honors the client as the expert and would require the therapist to have competence when working with various cultures. This would encourage and promote education on the differences of social constructionism when working with clients of diverse populations. The user-friendly nature of Transactional Analysis transcends cultural barriers, along with the educational approach to personal development (Corey, 2008). The idea of â€Å"life scripts† encompassed in this theory help to break through assumptions when it comes to our clients, whether it is with personality, culture, or other dramatic scripts that may include drug addiction or mental illness. These types of scripts, particularly those of cultural can affect whole populations in a harmful way. This violates our ethical principles of self-determination and by working through these situations using Transactional Analysis, it would serve to enhance the core values of social work. This type of theory is useful in working with women due to the use of contracts, equal relationships between client and practitioner, and empowerment of individuals (Corey, 2008). The feminist perspective is also celebrated by allowing the client to become empowered, and giving the opportunity to challenge the therapist’s ideas, allowing them to compare their reality with that of other women (Corey, 2008). Requisite skills for the practitioner Transactional Analysis would require a practitioner to have excellent observation skills and special training. The Berne Institute offers this training to those wishing to excel in the area of psychotherapy using the Transactional Analysis Techniques (The International Transactional Analysis Association, 1999). Practitioners would need to be familiar with the strengths perspective and have the ability to identify their own ego states. It would require maturity and the ability to recognize how their own external and internal experiences have affected them. By recognizing this it will allow the practitioner to remove biases and act in a professional manner when helping clients. The practitioner would need to be able to engage clients in a positive style and create rapport through the stroking method as proscribed through this theory (Berne D. E. , 2001). Strengths/Weaknesses of the theory Noted strengths of this theory are that it is positively focused and client centered. The client leads the sessions, and the identification of the ego states allows insight into the coping power of clients (Berne D. E. , 2001). Transactional analysis is a contractual and decisional model for change on the part of the client. It connects that mind and body, moving the transactional analysts to take a more holistic approach. These contracts may lead to new behaviors and give the client a sense of control. Therapy interventions are more likely to succeed and produce enduring change when involving the emotional and behavioral approaches (Corey, 2008). This theory would appear to be flexible and its concepts easily applied to individual, couples, families, groups, and community interventions. Also noted by Corey (2008) is that the concepts in this theory are congruent with a gender-sensitive approach to group work. Many clients are often unaware of how gender plays a role in their lives, this theory applied is helpful in realizing the role of importance it has and the effect is has on the client. It is often used in evaluating organizations, thus proving that it is a versatile theory with the ability to go from the micro to the macro in application (Clary, 1980). The emerging conclusions are that Transactional Analysis with adults has been proven more effective than no treatment, it roduces outcomes at best comparable to other forms of insight-oriented psychotherapy (Prochaska, 2010). Some notable limitations to the approach are that it has not been adequately subjected to empirical validation (Corey, 2008). Some of Berne’s concepts were stated in a manner that it would be impossible to design a research study to test them. Although there are measurable items in place (i. e. contract builds and supports accountability), the main determinate of success is based on feeling and observations (Corey, 2008). There is also the danger of losing the client to the jargon or structure of the theory- this structure can be used to avoid person-to-person interactions and focus on labeling ego states. Clients may be replacing old processes with new terms, and in doing so, preventing themselves from reaching self-actualization (Corey, 2008). Other Limitations with regards to Transactional Analysis are not openly apparent, with perhaps the exception of the cognitive aspects of reviewing the ego states (Berne D. E. , 2001). If a client is not mentally capable of identifying situations of learning and past experiences, or if they are limited in their capabilities for emotion, this may inhibit the effectiveness of this theory. Perhaps there may be a flaw in thinking that we can experience the past as it actually occurred, when in fact we are in the present. There needs to be some consideration as to how the present influences our thinking and assumptions. Based on where we are today, our morals, values, and experiences, it would be difficult not to be biased in some way when discussing our Child/Parent experiences and filtering it through the Adult ego state. Overall, the optimistic quality of this therapy seems to be a positive indicator, along with a positive client/therapist relationship that is encouraged by stroking and identifying the ego states essential to creating a contract for success.. References Berne, D. E. (2001 Feb). Transactional Analysis- As Originated by Dr. Eric Berne. Retrieved 2010 10-March from from Detailed History and Description of Transactional Analysis: www. ericberne. com/transactional_analysis_description. htm Berne, E. (1964). Games People Play- Basic Handbook of Transactional Analysis . New York, NY: Ballantine Books. Clary, T. C. (1980). Transactional Analysis. Training and Development Journal , 48-54. Corey, G. (2008). Theory and practice of group counseling. 7th Ed. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. Eagly, A. H. -S. (2003). Tranformational, Transactional, and Laissez-Faire Leadership Styles: A Meta- Analysis Comparing Women and Men. Pscyhogical Bulletin , 129 (4), 569-591. Fischer, J. (1973). A Framework for the Anlaysis and Comparison of Clinical Theories of Induced Change. In J. Fisher, Interpersonal Helping (pp. 110-130). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. Napper, R. (2009). Positive Psychology and Transactional Analysis. Transactional Analysis Journal , 39, 61-75. National Association of Social Workers (2008). Code of Ethics. Retrieved 2010, 4 May from National Association of Social Workers. socialworkers. org/pubs/Code/code. asp Nichols, M. P. (2008). Family Therapy Concepts and Methods (Eighth Edition ed. ). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, Inc. Prochaska, J. O. (2010). Systems of Psychotherapy: A Transtheoretical Analysis (7th Edition ed. ). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. Sills, C. (2007). Transactional Analysis- a relational psychotherapy. Therapy Today , 18 (1), 15-17. The International Transactional Analysis Association. 1999). Retrieved 2010 10-March from Key Ideas in Transactional Analysis: www. itaa-net. org/ta/CoreConcepts/index. htm Tudor, K. (2009). In the Manner of: Transactional Analysis Teaching of Transactional Analysis. Transactional Analysis Journal , 39 (4), 276-292. Turner, F. J. (Ed. ). (1986). Social Work Treatment: Interlocking Theorectical Approaches. New York, NY: The Free Press. Wal sh, J. (2006). Theories for Direct Social Work Practice (2nd Edition ed. ). Belmont , CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Witkin, S. . (1988). Alternative criteria for theory evaluation. Social Service Review , 62, 211-224.

Denouement 101 Definition and Must-Know Tips (With Examples!)

Denouement 101 Definition and Musts!) What is a Denouement? The denouement in the plot of a fictional work refers to the final moments of the story - the closing scenes and sigh of relief after the climax. It's the last stage in the narrative arc of Freytag's Pyramid, following the exposition, rising action, climax, and falling action.Of course, all books end - but a denouement purposefully provides some degree of resolution and fulfills the author's promises to the reader. If you're using the three-act structure to write a climax and then immediately jump 50 years into the future to detail an entirely new plot, only to end on a sudden cliffhanger - well, a denouement that is not. (More on cliffhangers later). What is a denouement? And how do you write one? Find the answers here! With this in mind, we can see the denouement in action when the Capulets and Montagues find Romeo and Juliet’s dead bodies, realize how their actions contributed to the tragedy at hand, and decide to try and make peace. Or Nick Carraway trying and failing to plan Gatsby’s funeral, and then reflecting on his summer in West Egg with one of literature’s most quoted closing lines: â€Å"So we beat on, boats against the current, borne back ceaselessly into the past.†Alright, now that we all know how to define denouement, let’s start writing one.How to write a denouementBecause all stories have to end at some point, a denouement is universal to every story structure. Individual readers will, naturally, have their own definition of a "satisfying ending" but it usually combines the feeling that you reached a natural conclusion and the wistful hope that you could also know what comes next.Here are a few things to keep in mind while writing your denouement so that it achieves both those feelings. The Hero's Journey: an Author's Guide to Plotting Read post PRO-TIP:  If you're curious about how the denouement figures into narrative structures outside of the three-act structure, we recommend that you read about the Hero's Journey or Dan Harmon's Story Circle.Fire all your fictional â€Å"guns†Most of us have heard of Chekhov’s Gun - the rule that if you let readers know that something is significant, you eventually have to explain why. An unfired gun is therefore an unfulfilled promise. class=tm-tweet-clear> class=tm-click-to-tweet> class=tm-ctt-text>4 tips for writing your novel's 'beginning of the end' - the denouement. class=tm-ctt-tip>This doesn’t mean that you now have to go back through your novel, make a note of every promise you made readers, and then dump the explanations into the denouement. The closing of a story is a place to follow through on the important promises you made to readers - the ones that will add to their understanding of the story. If you have lots of other tiny guns that you haven’t yet fired by the denouement, it probably means you should remove them.That said, you don't necessarily want to over-explain everything. Which brings us to our next point†¦Tie off loose ends - for the most partSome genres come with the expectation of a particular kind of story-ending. Romance novels, for example, typically conclude with a â€Å"Happily Ever After,† where all remaining questions are addressed and we have a complete picture of the characters and their lives moving forward. What is the Narrative Arc? A Guide to Storytelling Through Story Structure Read post Mystery novels also tend to tie up most loose ends - or all the ones that pertain to the mystery at hand, at least. The narrative arc usually reaches its climactic peak when the clues scattered throughout the story suddenly click together in the detective’s mind and they identify the guilty party. After, during the denouement, the rest of the major characters are often gathered round so that the detective can explain to them (and readers) how they cracked the case, and tie up loose ends. A denouement should tie off loose ends but still leave some things in the air. Find out how. While some stories that end by wrapping all their threads into a bow can be satisfying, it can also sometimes feel a little contrived and jolt readers out of the narrative. If you’re not writing a book that specifically needs to resolve all of its uncertainties, you might be better off writing a denouement that achieves the above point of fulfilling promises, but that also leaves a few lingering questions in the characters’ minds - that feeling that there’s still more that could be said. How to End a Story: Tips from Top Editors Read post To see how some famous authors ended their stories, go here.Leave something up in the airIn the novel The Fault in Our Stars, protagonist Hazel Grace talks about her favorite book, a fictional work called An Imperial Affliction. It is revealed that the book ends in the middle of a sentence, and the fates of the characters are left completely up in the air.The abrupt ending gives Hazel pause, and she concludes that the unorthodox conclusion is meant to reflect the uncertainty of death. Hazel reading An Imperial Affliction - and probably frustrated by it's open end (image: 20th Century Fox)Now, this is an extreme way to go about leaving lingering questions in your readers’ minds - one that is sure to frustrate many of them.However, if you want readers to reflect on your story after the final words, you should end your novel in such a way that implies the characters’ lives will continue. You can do this by nudging at potential future events or by demonstrating that while major arcs have been resolved, there are minor conflicts that have yet to be worked out. These are the kinds of endings that leave readers with a sense of longing to know what’s yet to come.Underscore the themeMany fables, such as Aesop’s The Tortoise and The Hair, end by stating the moral: â€Å"The race is not always to the swift.† What is the Theme of Your Story? A Guide for Authors Read post Unless you’re writing an anthology of parables, you probably don’t want to spoon-feed your readers this way. However, the denouement can be a great place to give a final, subtle, nod to your novel’s theme or motifs. Just make sure you’re not being repetitive or heavy-handed. Instead, offer insight that gives readers a final thought to chew on. Not all books need to overtly state their theme at the end.These are the main functions of a denouement, and if you can incorporate these elements into your story’s end, readers are sure to close your book with a satisfied sigh. Next up are a few bonus tips to keep in mind and pitfalls to avoid.Additional tipsDO†¦ show the effects of the character’s inner journeyMost novels feature some kind of â€Å"character vs self† conflict - whether it’s the main conflict of the story, as with Mrs. Dalloway, or a sub-conflict that mirrors a character’s external conflict. It’s their internal conflict that drives the character arc - the inner journey that unfolds over the course of the plot. Don't bail your characters out in the denouement. More tips for ending your story inside! How to Create a Character Profile: the Ultimate Guide (with Template) Read post Just as the narrative arc comes to a head at the climax, so will the character arc. Readers will, therefore, want to know what effect the climax has had on the character and their journey. Character development should continue into the denouement, and we should get a sense of how the events of the story have impacted them.DON’T... bail your plot/characters outA Series of Unfortunate Events is known for exaggerating and parodying tropes and storytelling gaffs. The first installment of the series concludes with the antagonist - Count Olaf - escaping arrest when one of his associates simply turns a light off so that Olaf can escape.While author Lemony Snicket presents readers with this ending in a self-aware, tongue-in-cheek manner, such an ending would is an example of a writer cop out: a denouement that undermines all of the preceding plot and character development.Writer cop outs usually involve a conflict resolution that’s contrived, unbelievable, and not in tune wit h the rest of the story.DO†¦ show, don’t tellIt’s one thing to have a detective list all the clues and rule out all the suspects at the end of a novel. But most novels shouldn’t end with a big speech that explains all of the different aspects of the story. A far more compelling ending is one that shows the appropriate resolution, as opposed to stating it. Check out our new guide for more tips to nail the â€Å"Show, Don’t Tell† rule. class=tm-tweet-clear> class=tm-click-to-tweet> class=tm-ctt-text>We all know the wistful feeling of ending a novel. Find out how to write your own. class=tm-ctt-tip>DON’T†¦ forget to release the tensionAuthors write the story and readers are just along for the ride, right? Wrong. If a story is written well, readers become invested participants in the journey your story unfolds. This is one of the denouement’s most important functions: giving your readers a chance to breathe after the climax, and to see the view from the top of the mountain they’ve just spent pages hiking.DO†¦ think carefully about using cliffhangersThere’s nothing more frustrating than reading through hundreds of pages of a story, only to find it's totally open-ended. And yet, there’s nothing more exciting than starting a second or third novel in a series, keenly anticipating answers that the previous book didn’t supply. Gone Girl ended on a cliffhanger that left many readers fuming.That’s why, if you’re not writing a series, you should approach cliffhangers with caution. Many feel that to end a novel on sudden plot-twist or without any sense of resolution whatsoever is to betray your readers’ trust. So if your stand-alone novel just has to end on a cliffhanger, make sure you lay adequate groundwork and foreshadowing through the story so that readers are caught off-guard - but not left feeling like the rug has been swept out from under them. In other words, your cliffhanger should leave readers speculating, not consternating.Denouement examplesRead on for examples of denouements from famous novels that hit all the marks of a well-written denouement - but be warned: spoilers ahead.Murder on the Orient Express by Agatha ChristieThough the ending of this classic mystery novel answers all the logistical questions of how Cassetti was murdered, the denouement of Murder on the Orient Express doesn’t end on a note of total resolution. It closes with a moral debate: who should be condemned for this crime? In the end, while Poirot feels the murder was justified, there is still a question that hangs in the air: is the law absolute? And if not, where does it fade? Poirot does not seem to reach a conclusion that wholly satisfies this ethical quandary in the denouement. Hence, even though the mystery   reaches a satisfying close, the novel ends on an ellipsis that allows us to reflect on its themes.PRO-TIP: Mysteries in general are great examples of denouements. To see what we mean, you can't go wrong reading more classic works of Agatha Christie. Or if you lean more toward the cozy side,  check out these nine great cozy mystery books!To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper LeeSometimes a denouement echoes the climax as a way of hitting one final nail on the head of theme - without having to overtly state it. Bob Ewell attacking Scout and Jem in To Kill a Mockingbi rd is an example of this: it’s an outcome of the climax that occurs in the denouement and is what really drives Scout’s character development home. The denouement of To Kill a Mockingbird completes Scout's character development in the novel (image: Universal Pictures)In the aftermath of the attack, Scout realizes that Boo Radley saved her and her brother’s life. For the first time, she sees him as a human being rather than the subject of a ghoulish local legend. She also backs up Heck Tate’s decision to report Bob Ewell’s death as an accident in order to spare the already-taunted Boo from the publicity of a trial. Both of these actions and realizations signify Scout’s final steps towards acquiring a more â€Å"adult† and complete moral perspective - one Atticus has been encouraging for the duration of the book. This moral perspective includes the recognition that the human experience is comprised of experiences with both â€Å"good† and â€Å"evil,† and that people have the choice to live consciously without becoming cynical losing hope in human kindness. How to write a denouement that leaves readers wondering: "what could happen next?"   class=tm-ctt-tip>As you can see, the denouement doesn’t need to include fireworks - or even answers to every question a novel poses. Stories where everything works out and everyone rides off into the sunset can feel rather contrived or like a harsh yank from the stories world into reality. Use your denouement to fulfill your promises to your readers but to also leave a small kernel of wondering: what could happen next?Do you have examples of favorite (or most frustrating!) denouements? Perhaps you're currently working on the end of your own novel and have tips for, or questions about, getting it right. Leave any thoughts in the comments below!

Olympic games in China Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Olympic games in China - Essay Example est import trading partner and the 11th export partner to the USA but by the year 2005, China had become the second largest import and the fourth largest export partner and the third largest trading partner overall next to Mexico, Canada and Japan. China has emerged as the main strategic partner to the USA. The USA has identified China as one of its top ten emerging markets. Just like commodities, capital requires high capital markets, and hence the USA has heavily invested in the Chinese markets, and this is a clear demonstration that China has become the largest overseas market for the USA capital. China and the USA have recorded remarkable achievement in terms of financial cooperation and by the year 2005, China was holding US$254.4 in US treasury bonds as well as a considerable number of US private securities and stocks. Consequently, by 2005, the foreign reserve of China reached US$810 billion and 60 percent of this was USA capital. The trade between the two countries has been, however, faced with numerous challenges emanating from the increasing friction and conflicts like RMB exchange rates, Intellectual Property Rights, market access and trade balance. Trade wars have had the tendency of ruining the trade and economic ties between the two countries and are not acceptable. This has been exemplified by the restrictions and the counter restrictions that was involved the textile trade between the two countries that involved up to seven rounds of negotiations that culminated in the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding regarding the trading of apparel and textile. This ref lected the settling of frictions and trade-based disputes in Sino-US economic ties. The USA imports a lot of daily necessities from China and these goods have been established to be of a good quality and of low or reasonable pricing that can easily satisfy the US market. The Chinese products are of great benefit to the US consumers, and they help ease inflation and facilitate the

Paul of tarsus life, career, writings, and teaching Term Paper

Paul of tarsus life, career, writings, and teaching - Term Paper Example This work will also touch on the methodology of preaching the gospel and how he was able to get followers and his ways of establishing churches through his missionary journeys to various towns in Asia. In this analysis, I will use information contained in history about the political atmosphere and how it fostered his work. The other part of this work will be a description of his death and what the church today can learn from his life. The Bible speaks little on Paul’s family. Philippians 3.5 records him as a Hebrew from the tribe of Judah in Israel. However, in Acts 23.3, Paul implies ancestral connections to the Pharisees. His was born in Tarsus, in the province of Cilicia. Nevertheless, his upbringing is recorded to have been in Jerusalem and was trained in the law by Gamaliel through whom he became perfect in Jewish laws. Paul records in (Acts 26.4-11) that he used to persecute the church. This was true of his early life and many could attest to. Little is known about the e ntire life except of his involvement in persecution of early believers of Christ, which he calls the new way (Acts 22:4). This can be evidenced through his active participation in killing of Stephen. He was not among the disciples of Jesus and he is portrayed to come after Jesus was crucified. However, one time as he journeyed from Jerusalem to Damascus for the very works of persecution, a bright light met him and as a result he lost his sight. It was after three days that Ananias who was sent by God to him prayed for him and he regained his sight. This encounter formed the basis of Paul’s conversion from his former way of life as an anti-Christian into an apostle to the very gospel he persecuted. Jason, in a study named Saul’s Recruitment on the Road to Damascus, argues that it is not an easy task for one to change from one group to another or simply changing identities. In changing from one lifestyle of a Judean non believer to another lifestyle of believing in Jesus was painful as it involved separation and aggregation. Jason in fact argues that the conversion is best referred to as â€Å"recruitment†. The conversion of Saul to Paul, now a believer in Jesus, is legitimized by the Jewish ritual of baptism. This symbolized the recruitment into another group and a change of identity (Lamoreaux 122,132). Paul transformed from his earlier lifestyle of persecuting the church to active participation in evangelism and is in fact accorded the honor of taking the gospel to the gentiles and having them counted among the believers of Christ. The book of acts cites with emphasis the struggles that Paul underwent through in the transformation; first because of his prior state as a persecutor of the gospel and later as a witness to the same gospel and more so because of his struggles for acceptance in the society. Earlier on, Paul had a legacy of terrorizing and killing the Christian Jews who argued that Jesus was the savior and the king of the Jews. Among the many issues that supported his persecution was that the Jews saw Christ’s death as a curse and not an honor. He therefore used the synagogue punishment system to inflict sufferings to all those who were followers of Christ. This was the main reason why Saul, now Paul, experienced a lot of resistance while he came back in support of the same faith he was persecuting. He suffers a lot in the Mediterranean

Annotated Bibliography Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Annotated Bibliography - Assignment Example - This was another research work that looked at the epidemiology of West Vile virus in Louisiana. In the paper, a quantitative method that made use of an environmental predictive model was used. in this model, a geographic information system and remote sensing were developed to find the relationship between human cases and case in dead birds. The study concluded that there was 74% of relation. In terms of methods, there will be some level of similarity with the intended study to be carried out. However, there will be difference with the population because in the intended study, there will be an exclusive use of human populations. This study addressed the issue of predictors of hyperendemicity of West Nile virus in Texas. With the focus of the researcher to undertake a spatial analysis of the virus and its predictors in Texas, Poisson was modeled as the exclusive method to aid the researcher achieve the said goals of the study. The outcome of the study showed that Hockley, Lubbock and Lynn, which were used as primary clusters were all hotspots for the disease. Leon and Robertson were also hotspots thought used as secondary clusters. It was concluded that there is a geographic relation with contracting the disease. The method is different from the intended methodology even though the variables of the population would be slightly same. The research was addressed to the issue of the role that birds play in the spread of the West Vile virus. A quasi experiment was used as method for data collection by the researcher, where the outcome of the study showed that indeed American Tree Sparrows have a role to play in the distribution of the disease in man. Between resident species and migrating species, it was concluded that there was increased incidence of West Vile virus as compared to migrating species. In line with the proposed study, the

The Decisions We Make In Social Work Social Work Essay

The Decisions We Make In Social Work Social Work Essay How do we make ethical decisions in social work? Discuss the process illustrating your arguments with specific case examples.    Ethical awareness is a fundamental part of the professional practice of social workers. Their ability and commitment to act ethically is an essential aspect of the quality of the service offered to those who use social work services. It is an inevitable process that social workers will find themselves within the dimension of ethical issues which will no doubt challenge the individual and bring about some critical reflection of action. Some of the problem areas where ethical issues may arise include; The fact that the loyalty of social workers is often in the middle of conflicting interests. The fact that social workers function as both helpers and controllers. The conflicts between the duties of social workers to protect the interests of the people. With whom they work and societal demands for efficiency and utility. The fact that resources in society are limited. Beckett and Maynard (2006)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This assignment will address some of the areas where a social worker may run into conflict. To begin this assignment will examine the importance of values personal, professional, societal and organizational; it will further examine the vital need for a shared core base of professional values within social work. It will begin to discuss the complex nature of social work and the guidance found in the code of ethics when social workers face ethical dilemmas. It will support this concept with a case scenario. The assignment will then discuss another area where an ethical dilemmas can arise, in risk assessment, and will discuss using a case scenario how risk can be managed ethically. The core of the assignment will briefly outline an approach to how an ethical decision can be made and will draw on two theoretical aspects within ethical decision making. To finish this assignment will look at ethics within partnership working where a brief scenario will support the impo rtance of anti-oppressive practice and ethics within organisations. The assignment will then conclude with a summary detailing the need for ethical awareness within social work. Every day social workers are faced with stressful, even traumatic situations, such as domestic violence, child abuse, the homeless, family tension, mental illness and suicide. Therefore it is fair to say social workers work with the most disadvantaged groups and vulnerable individuals in society. Clark, (2000) p1 says The service that is provided is seen as the most contentious of all the human service professions. It is because of the nature of the job, social workers often find themselves dealing with tough decisions about human situations that involve the potential for benefit or harm. Whilst underpinning the decision process is the strong expectation that social workers must be able to balance the tension between the rights and responsibilities of the people who use services and the legitimate requirements of the wider public. They must also be able to understand the implications of, and to work effectively and sensitively with, people whose cultures, beliefs or life experiences are different from their own. In all of these situations, they must recognise and put aside any personal prejudices they may have. According to Pinker, social work is, essentially, a moral enterprise Pinker, (1990) p14 whilst Beckett and Maynard, (2006) p189 states Almost all of the important decisions that are made by social workers have a value component. According to Banks, (2006) p6: Values are particular types of belief that people hold about what is regarded as worthy or valuable.   Values of the client, profession, organisation and society are an intrinsic part of decision making. Traditional values of social work was first introduced in the early 60s by Biestek. His principles outlined the basics of traditional social work and were constructed of a seven-point scheme. The principles consisted of Individualism, Purposeful expression of feelings, Controlled emotional involvement., Acceptance, Non-judgmental attitude, User self-determination, Confidentiality.Biestek (1961). Many of Biestek beliefs were very traditional and were criticised for their diversity in their interpretation. Controversies relating to different principles caused many problematic conclusions, for example individualisation and confidentiality. Individualisation could not be possible in the fast moving modern world, people lose their identity and individualis ation is not respected. Confidentiality has its limitations to be enforced for example; If a user shares information where someone will be harmed, the social workers duty is to share it as a right to other individuals. It was clear these key issues had to be developed and advanced to help social workers. Furthermore it was considered that there must be guidance on values and ethics for social workers, as they play a major part in their work. Banks, (2006) p150 says; There is recognition that personal and agency values may conflict and that the worker as a person has a moral responsibility to make decisions about these conflicts. Therefore the social work profession is guided by the shared values that underpin its practice set out in the (GSCC 2002) code of conduct. The code is criteria to guide practice standards and judge accountability from social care workers. The work load of social workers deals with individuals who are disadvantaged in some form or another so it is important to have a shared value system to reflect the ethical problems and dilemmas they face.   Working from a professional value is a guide to professional behaviours that maintain identity and can protect service users from malpractice. Parrott, (2006) p17. On their own personal values will be of limited use. Beliefs and good intentions will not give the professional the knowledge and skills they need to make sense of a practice situation and inter vene in it. The difference between personal and professional values include, professional values can be distinguished from personal values, in that personal values may not be shared by all members of an occupational group, for example, a person who works as a social worker may have a personal belief that abortion is wrong, but this is not one of the underlying principles of social work. Banks, (2006), p 7. The GSCC codes of practice contain a list of statements that describe the standards of professional conduct and practice required of social care workers. They are as followed; protect the rights and promote the interests of services users and carers, strive to establish and maintain the trust and confidence of service users and carers, promote the independence of service users while protecting them as far as possible from danger or harm, Respect the rights of service users while seeking to ensure that their behaviour does not harm themselves or other people, Uphold public trust and confidence in social care services and Be accountable for the quality of their work and take responsibility for maintain and improving their knowledge and skills GSCC (2002) It is then hardly surprising giving the complex nature of the professional role a social worker may find them self when making decisions within ethical areas facing an ethical dilemma. Theà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¯ethical dilemma arises when there are; two equally unwelcome alternatives which involves a conflict of moral principle and it is not clear which choice is right Banks (2006). When social workers struggle to reach a decision they can be then guided by the code of Ethics. The primary objective of the Associations code of Ethics is to express the values and principles which are integral to social work, and to give guidance on ethical practice. BASW (2001). Loewenverg and Dolgoff (1996) state that Ethic are designed to help social worker decide which of the two or more competing goals isà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¯correct for their given situational . However alongside ethical awareness you have to be aware of the publicly stated values of your agency and make skilful judgements based upon your accumu lated knowledge and experience. Ethical considerations are rarely the responsibility of one worker; however, agencies policies and structures of accountability offer both guidance and a standard against which your practice can be measured. Accountability, therefore, is the process through which employers and the public can judge the quality of individual workers practice and hold them responsible for their decisions and actions. (Derek Clifford Beverley Burke 2005) Competing values and multiple-client system are two areas where a social worker may find themselves facing an ethical dilemma. Weather it is the social work values that is competing against agency values or within each a confliction of values, which will leave the social worker in need to decide which value will take priority. Also deciding which role the social worker must take in order to reach the right decision can lead to the dilemma of role confliction. Beckett and Maynard (2006) suggest that the role of a social worker can be put into three groups: Advocacy, Direct Change Agent and Executive. The advocacy role can be either direct or indirect. Direct change agent being counsellor or therapist, mediator, educator and catalyst, with executive role as almoner, care manager, responsibility holder, co-ordinator and service developer (Beckett and Maynard 2006 p8). The GSCC (2002) code of conduct  says As a social care worker, you must strive to establish and maintain the trust and confidence of service users and carers (s2), which includes Respecting confidential information and clearly explaining agency policies about confidentiality to service users and carers. Consider the following scenario; whilst on placement a client disclosed sensitive information to a trainee social worker regarding the well-being of her neighbours children. After clarification that social worker would have to pass this information on to their manager, the client did not wish to consent to the information being passed on. When the supporting relationship had ended, the social worker had to then make a decision based on where there priorities lay. As they were supporting the client who disclosed, they had a responsibility to uphold the standard of respecting her confidentiality. However they also had a responsibility to the wider society which in this case was the ch ildren who were at risk of harm.   When making the decision they assessed all the information and weighed up the outcomes. Do they withhold the information in order to maintain the trust and respect of the client or do they prioritize the needs and risk of the children? They then turned to the agency safeguarding policy and the code of ethics for social workers which clearly states; we must not promise to keep secrets for or about a child or young person Agency safeguarding policy, (2010) p10 and further states; We aim to safeguard children at all times, by delivering our services safely and by sharing information when there is a concern.p9. Clearly the value of life outweighed the needs and wishes of the client in this circumstance. However to whom did the social worker owe responsibility and which role should they take in this situation. Banks (2006) p48 clarifies this conflict by suggesting : Yet while the social worker may be able to focus largely on one individual service user and take on the role of advocate for the service users rights, often the social worker has to take into account the rights of significant à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¯others in a situation. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¯In the interests of justice it may not always be morally right to promote the service users rights at the expense of those of others The social worker if doubting her judgement, would address the BASW (2001) code of Ethics to guide the outcome of her decision, the code states; Social workers will not act without informed consent of service users, unless required by law to protect that person or another from risk of serious harm. (4.1.4 p8) Furthermore it guides us by stating; In exceptional circumstances where the priority of the service users interest is outweighed the need to protect others or by legal requirements, make service users aware that their interests may be overridden. (4.1.1 b p8) As you can see the code of ethics guided the social worker to the right course of action that they should take. They were duty bound by law to act on behalf of the individuals who were at most risk. According to Parrot (2010) p86 Risk refers to the likelihood of an event happening which in contemporary circumstances is seen as undesirable.   It is when facing issues involving risk that values become of central importance in enabling practitioners to manage risk. Consider the following scenario; a social worker visits an elderly lady in her home after a referral is made by the ladies niece. The niece is concerned for the safety of her aunt after a recent decline in her aunts mobility and health which resulted in a nasty fall. The niece lives quite far away and cannot provide regular care for her aunt. The lady values her independence and does not want to be put in a residential home which her niece thinks would be for the best; however there is a concern able risk that if some form of intervention is not in place the lady is at serious risk of hurting herself further. The social worker is faced with a dilemma. The lady has a right to autonomy and self-determination however ther e is a risk of potential harm happening. The social worker must risk assess the potential outcomes and measure the risk involved. Which on one hand the individual faces residential care involving losing much personal freedom and autonomy; on the other hand to leave a person in their own home to face social isolation and to be potentially at risk of physical danger may also be unwelcome. Social workers have to look to the consequences of their actions and weight up which action would be least harmful / most beneficial to the user, and which action would benefit most efficientlyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¯ Parrott (2010) p51 While Kemshall (2002) p128 argues, risk management cannot guarantee to prevent risk. It can attempt to limit the chances of risky situations tuning into dangerous ones or reduce the consequences of such situations. As she suggests, minimization rather than reduction is the key. In other words to approach this situation the social worker will identify the social work values that is embedded in the their practice which is; As a social care worker, you must respect the rights of the service users while seeking to ensure that their behaviour does not harm themselves or other people. (GSCC 2002 s4). For further guidance the social worker will identify with the code of ethics   which states; we may limit clients rights to self-determination when, in the social workers professional judgment, clients actions or potential actions pose a serious, foreseeable, and imminent risk to themselves or others, but it also tells us that we are to promote clientsself-determination Code of Ethics (1.02). Weighing up the outcomes of the individual the social worker will be committed to allowing the individual choice and empowerment. And work with the elderly lady to ensure her self-determination remains able whilst also advocating on the ladies behalf to ensure she is able to a ccess services which will allow her to live a safe independent life. Thompson (2005,p170) cited on blackboard says it is the social workers role to enable service users and carers: to gain power and control over their own lives and circumstancesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..to help people to have a voiceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..so that they counter the negative effects of discrimination and marginalization whilst Hatton (2008, p145) cited on(class PowerPoint 2011) sees social workers role as active change agents to create: an empowered and active group of service users and carers who hold us to account, share in our decision making and participate actively in the way we deliver services Social work decisions span a wide range from safeguarding through to allocation services and advising clients and families on courses of action to improve their lives. As we can see some decisions may involve a breach of confidentiality and assessment of high risks such as a vulnerable adult in need of services to improve their quality of life and prevent harm even death. It is important therefore for social workers to be able to justify their actions.   Social worker therefore must draw upon a variety of professional knowledge such as law, policy, research, theory, standards, principles and practice wisdom to inform complex and sensitive judgements and decisions in uncertain situations where harm may ensue. Much of what social workers do concerns decisions about future courses of action, which puts decision making at the heart of social work as a core professional activity. Banks (2006) p9 This assignment will now examine how the ethical dilemma can be resolved  by discussing  an approach to guide the process of ethical decisions in practice. We have identified that social workers are expected to critically examine ethical issues in order to come to a resolution that is consistent with social work values and ethical principles. However how is the social worker able to organize all the components relevant to the decision and outcomes. One example of a model to help assist the social worker reach resolution is Mattison (2000, p.206) His model offers a framework to analyse ethical dilemmas such as: Define and gather information; Once the social worker has identified an ethical dilemma, they begin the process of making a decision by fully exploring case details and gathers needed information to understand holistically the clients current circumstances. Supporting this is Horner (2005 p97) who says that social workers are to engage holistically with both the person and their circumstances whilst at the same time recognizing the processes of power dynamics at the play in the helping relationship It is then important for the social worker to distinguish the practice aspects of the case from the ethical considerations (so separate practice from how you have learned to think about ethical issues). Identify value tensions The social worker must refer to the professional code of ethics to help clarify obligations and identify the principles that have a bearing on the dilemma The social worker projects, weighs, and measures the possible courses of action that seem reasonable and the potential consequences of these The social worker after weighing up options must select an action for resolving a dilemma. This involves determining which of the competing obligations are we going to honour foremost (this may mean at the expense of others). The social worker reaches the resolution stage and this means being able to justify the decision. To further this ideas of influence on decisions It is also vitally important for social workers to take time to reflect on their practice and own values. This is a vital point because although guides and frameworks can be developed to offer social workers a logical approach to the decision making process, to some extent, the use of discretionary judgments is evitable (Mattison, 2000). The value system and preferences of the decision maker ultimately shape the process of working through dilemmas and so it is important for social workers to be ethically aware of their character, philosophies, attitudes and biases. Furthermore, philosophers have argued that elements of deontological and teleological thinking operate in and influences decision making in ethical dilemmas. A deontological thinker is grounded in the belief that actions can be determined right or wrong, good or bad, regardless of the consequences they produce and so adherence to rules is central. Once formulated, ethical rul es should hold under all circumstances (Mattison, 2000). On the other hand a teleological thinker is ground in the belief of consequences and so weighing up the potential consequences of proposed actions is central to this way of thinking (Mattison, 2000). So a social worker following a deontological way of thinking will differ in their approach to ethical decision making compared with a social worker following a teleological way of thinking. As part of the profession social workers often find them self-working collaboratively with other professionals such as doctors, police, nurses, teachers and probation officers to name but a few.   Considering the variety of different professions merging to reach possible outcomes it is not surprising that partnership working becomes a complex problem. Mainly because of the assumptions that we are all working towards a collective aim. Bates cited in Parrot (2010.) Different values, ideologies, ethics and culture of working can too lead to confliction of interests.  Ã‚   Effective partnerships require sustained relationships, shared agendas built up over time and a commitment to shared problem solving. When different professional groupings come together in collaboration then they bring with them their own ways of working, organisational cultures and attitudes, their particular practice experience and their own ethical codes Parrot (2010) Consider the following scenario; a social work student commitment to anti oppressive practice is clearly challenged whilst on placement.   The voluntary organisation which they are placed with worked in partnership with the crown court. One day as they were waiting for an expected family, to whom they were supporting, they are then approached by an usher (a worker of the court justice system). He commented on the family jokingly saying;  Oh no not that family again they are low life Jeremy Kyle watching scroungers, they bring the trouble on themselves.   This use of stereotypical language discriminated and negatively challenged the whole purpose of the organisations aims which is to value diversity, whilst also conflicting with section 5 of the core values of the GSCC You must not discriminate unlawfully or unjustifiably against service users, carers or colleagues (GSCC 2002 5.5) Parrot (2010 ) suggests There is no appropriate way at which a social worker can condone such langu age weather they choose to confront the issue at hand or make a formal complaint. Parrott (2010) further states; what is the point in partnership working with fellow professionals only to result in the dilution of the social workers value base and the demeaning of service users. The point of partnership working is not to deliver appropriate services to service users only to have them undermined by some partners exhibiting discriminatory attitudes. What if in the scenario discussed above, the discriminatory attitudes and beliefs of the usher, was an unconscious influence to the social workers approach when working with the individuals involved in the scenario. This could result in an already marginalised group becoming oppressed further.   Thompson, (2005 p34) describes oppression as; Inhuman or degrading treatment of individuals or groups; in hardship and in justice brought about by the dominance of one group over another; the negative and demeaning exercise of power. Oppression often involves disregarding the rights of an individual or group and this is a denial of citizenship. Thompson further suggests that oppression can act at three levels, these levels of oppression offers a framework for looking at how inequalities and discrimination manifest themselves. Personal level which relates to an individuals thoughts, feelings, attitudes and actions. Cultural level which looks at shared ways of seeing, thinking, and doing. Structural level relates to matters such as policy. Thompson (2005 p21 -23) Abramson 1996 cited in Mattison (2000) supports this by saying The process of the decision making is forged by the prejudice and prejudgement brought to the decision making process by the decision maker. Therefore social workers as agents of change attempt to alleviate inequalities and oppression within societies and need to be aware of the values underlying their work by referring to the code of ethics. By adopting values and anti-oppressive practice such as advocacy; social workers will be able to make informed decisions in addressing aspects, which relate to the p rovision of services to individuals who may have differing needs. Parrott (2010 p23) describes Anti oppressive practice (AOP)  as a general value orientation towards countering oppression experienced by service users on such grounds as race, gender class age etc. AOP are also values of working in partnership and empowerment. Social workers and their employers have an ethical duty to ensure that the organisations they work for operate in a just manner Parrot (2010) Social work organisations therefore must uphold the portrayal that social work is something worthy and the operation of its organisation will lead to positive outcomes. The commitment to social justice ensures public organisations work under legislation to eliminate unlawful discrimination and to promote equality of opportunity and good relations between persons of different racial groups.   Expectations of the social care employee are prompted by the GCSS code of conduct.   For example in the case scenario discussed above if the attitudes of the usher was another social worker within an organization the social worker would act on guidance on policy procedure and ensure the commitment to social justice was withheld. If the other social workers attitudes towards service users resulted in unfair treatment and inequality of services than they are not upholding the ethical principles of effective practice stated in the IFSW (1994)   Social workers should recognise and respect the ethnic and cultural diversity of the societies in which they practise, taking account of individual, family, group and community differences. S4.2.2 Therefore the other social worker would have a responsibility to Challenging unjust practices Social workers have a duty to bring to the attention of their employers, policy makers, politicians and the general public situations where resources are inadequate or where distribution of resources, policies and practices are oppressive, unfair or harmful.s4.2.1 If the other social worker is ethically aware and challenges injustice it is their moral obligation to bring to the attention of the organisation the other social workers behaviour. The social worker would participate in whistle blowing Parrot (2010) p154 defines whistle blowing as   The disclosure by an employee, in a government agency or private enterprise, to the public or to those in authority, of mismanagement, corruption, illegality or some other wrongdoing.   The organisation will then deal directly with the moral character of the social workers discriminatory attitudes. In conclusion social work can be a challenging subject and one that will actively push the boundaries of all social workers on a personal level and professional level. It is agreed within social work that ethics, morals and values are all an inescapable part of professional practice and Ethical awareness is a necessary part of practice of any social work (IFSW, 1994).à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¯ However as this assignment has discussed guides can be provided but inevitability it is up to the social workers discretionary judgement of the circumstances. Arguably It is therefore important as a social worker to be aware of the code of ethics, and to talk, discuss, debrief and debate with colleagues and supervisors about dilemmas they may be struggling with. Finally, the onus is on social workers to be reflective about themselves and how self influences practice and decision making. To finish we have to be critically aware of personal beliefs and biases, bringing them to light so they do not unconscio usly influence our practice decisions, leading to injustice and unfair distribution and access to services. Service users must be put at the heart of social work practice and it is our duty as social workers to take any necessary steps within our organisations to ensure mistreatment and inequality is brought to surface. We can therefore improve public trust within the social service profession and encourage service users to work in partnership to empower their lives. References Agency Safe guarding Policy, (2010) Banks, S., (2006). Ethics and Values in Social Work .3rd Ed. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, BASW (2001) The Code of Ethics for Social Work, Beckett, C. Maynard, A.,( 2005). Values and Ethics in Social Work: An Introduction, London: Sage Biestek,F. (1971). The Casework Relationship, 7th Ed Unwin: University Books. Clark, C. (2000) Social Work Ethics: Politics, Principles and Practice. Basingstoke: MacMillan Class PowerPoint, Values and Ethics, Blackboard (2011) Clifford, D Burke, B, Anti-oppressive Ethics, Social Work Education, Vol. 24, No. 6, September (2005), pp. 677-692 GSCC (2002) Codes of Practice for Social Care Workers and Employers, London: GSCC Horner, N. (2005) What is Social Work? Context and Perspectives. Exeter: Learning Matters International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW) available at; http://www.ifsw.org/p38000324.html, accessed on 12/05/2011 Kemshall, H and Pritchard, J (1996) Good Practice in Risk Assessment and Risk Management. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers Loewenberg, F. and Dolgoff, R. (1996) Ethical Choices in the Helping Professions. Ethical Decisions for Social Work Practice, 5th ed., Illinois: Peacock Publishers: Mattison, M. (2000) Ethical Decision Making: The Person in the Process Social Work Vol.45(3), pp.201-212. Parrott, L, (2010) Values and ethics in social work practice 2nd ed, learning matters: Exeter Pinker, R. (1990) Social Work in an Enterprise Society, London:   Routledge. Thompson, N, (2005). Understanding Social Work: Preparing for Practice. 2nd Ed. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Serial Killer :: Serial Killer Essays

Serial killer is a person who kills three or more people with a cooling off period between murders and these murders may go on for a period of months or years. The murders that this person commits may have similar fashion or the victims may have something in common, for example, occupation, race, appearance, sex, or age group. Psychology is the science and study of human behavior and mental processes. Moreover, it is the study of human minds and its function. Krafft-Ebing (1886) found that the serial killer had been through cruelty of animal; enjoy the torture and the pain of their victim during his or her childhood period. Moreover, the mothers of these serial killers were most of time working or doing other things and usually the father were absent. These children experience rejection and lack of attention, therefore, this child grows up having low self-esteem. Research show that adults that gone through abuse and violent behavior during their childhood were three times more likely to become violent as adult more than the non abused adults (Dutton & Hart, 1992). Freud (1940) was the first to do the link between sexual abuses during the childhood and adult abnormal behavior. As a result of that serial killer uses sex as a way to let out his or her anger and aggression. The sexually acts of the serial killer is not only about sex, but it is about revenge, power, and control. â€Å"Serial killers are unconsciously trying to kill off their repressed sexual pain and powerlessness. Every stab into the victim’s flesh is a stab against their own childhood sexual terror and pain, and the rage that accompanies it is a rage against those who tormented and terrorized† (Knight, 2006, p. 1199-1200). To take off the aggression and need to compensate the horrible memories of the childhood explain the reason why serial killers abuse animals during their childhood. When they were children they control pets and they can harm them knowing that the animals can fight back. Therefore, they feel themselves as if they were in absolute power. This animal torture later will turn in to human victim torture. Charister Clause and Lars Lidberg (1999) used five characteristics from Shahriar disorder that are common among serial killers.